The Heritage of the Great Steppe
The Kazakhs are an ancient nomadic people. Their remote ancestors, Blue Turkis, domesticated bangtails and invented the metal stirrup and the cart-wheel. They travelled over a vast area: from the Altai Mountains to the Caspian and Black Sea shores, from the West Siberian Plain and the Ural Mountains to the northern spurs of the Tien Shan.
The nomads’ life was like that of the migrating birds. In autumn the birds flew south, and the tribe followed them. That is why the Kazakhs regard wild geese and swans as their forbears, and the Milky Way was referred to as the Kus Zholy (the Birds’ Way).
The Kazakhs travelled principally in a north-south direction. In spring they moved to the southern slopes of the mountains where the sun was warmer and the first grass was growing. They spent the summer on green alpine meadows and in autumn, with the first frost, they headed south, towards the semi-deserts, where there are no severe snowstorms.
In ancient times the Kazakhs developed a harmonious system of tribal land tenure and land use, based on the cycle of natural processes. Each tribe was assigned a strictly defined roaming route on which other clans had no right to encroach.
The Kazakhs’ traditional lifestyle, as well as their patriarchal and tribal relationships, determined the nature, form and content of Kazakh culture, which in many ways still remains unchanged. Folk-beliefs about the origin of domestic animals underlay numerous legends, according to which a fast, light horse was made from the wind, a sheep was woven from the sky and fire, and a mountain goat was cut out of stone. All domestic animals, like all living beings, were thought to have protectors. Some relicts of nature-worship have remained to this day. Modern Kazakhs honour mountains, lakes and rivers. A single tree in the steppe may be an object of worship. So, on finding such a tree, a traveller will tie a scrap of his clothing to it in the hope that all his devout wishes will come true.
The life of nomads was full of folk-customs, rituals and festivals. Like other Muslims, the Kazakhs used to celebrate two religious holidays: the Uraza Ait (the end of Ramadan) and, 70 days later, the Kurban Ait (sacrifice). It was a convention to make donations to mosques, saints and holy places on those days. In addition, the best cattle were sacrificed during the Kurban Ait.
Since olden days the Nauryz, a holiday marking the awakening of nature, has played an important role in the life of the Kazakhs. Kazakh people believe that the more lavishly Nauryz is marked, the happier the year will be. The celebration of Nauryz starts on the day of the vernal equinox and lasts for three days. People congratulate one another and wish each other happiness and prosperity. Usually, the festival begins with an aitys, a poetical contest between a girl and a young man (jigit), which personifies the fight between winter and spring and ends in folk games and contests. The mandatory attribute of the Kazakh Nauryz is the number seven which stands for the seven days of the week, the unit of time through the eternity of the Universe. Seven cups of Nauryz-kozhe, a ritual dish composed of seven ingredients, are served around the aksakals (elders).
On leaving an encampment, the Kazakhs followed traditional ceremonies. They believed in the purgative energy of fire and thought that driving a line of cattle between big fires could deliver them from malign forces. Along their weary road from winter to summer encampments, the travellers would make short halts during which various festivals and games were held.
The season when nomads arrived at the zhailau (summer pastures) was the richest for feasts. People pitched yurts (felt tents), visited friends and arranged aityses among known aqyns – singers and poets. The young built altybakan swings (six posts) and played games. Aksuyek (white bone) was the most popular game, the object of which was to find a ram’s cannon-bone that had been thrown into the steppe. Children liked playing with alchiki or asyki, coloured sheep’s pasterns. The antiquity of this game has been confirmed by archaeological evidence within Kazakhstan. Wedding ceremonies were accompanied with ritual singing and dancing. A wedding would begin with the song Toi Bastar (Opening the Ceremony) which was an interpretation of the marriage rite. Other ritual songs were Zhar-Zhar and Betashar.
The latter was edificatory and was sung when a bride arrived at her fiance’s home. The guests feasted and then young men and girls played Kyz Kuu, a horse riding contest, in which a horsewoman would try to gallop away from her pursuer, beating him with a whip when he approached her. If the man could not catch up with the girl before they reached an agreed place, she would lash him again as a punishment. If he succeeded in reaching the point, the girl would favour him with a kiss.
Important events in a nomad’s life were marked by family feasts. The ceremonies on the occasions of the delivery of a child (shildekana), putting it into the cradle (besyk toi), the fortieth day since birth (kyrkynan shygaru) and the Moslem rite of circumcision of boys of three to ten years (sundet toi) were the most solemn.
By virtue of the nomadic way of life, equestrian games and contests were often held by the Kazakhs who worship horses and love equestrian games to this day. A solemn funeral with horse racing would be held in honour of a family elder. A great many people attended these events, which lasted for three to seven days. The final day culminated in a grand race (alaman baiga), which would be the topic of stories and songs for many years.
Military games and sports also played a large role in nomads’ lives, such as saiys (single combat using lances), audaryspak (a horsemanship contest with the object of unhorsing one’s opponent), zhamby atu (archery or shooting at a target at a full gallop), kokpar (fighting for a goat carcass), and horse racing. Another popular form of combat was kazakhsha kures, a kind of freestyle wrestling but without weight categories.
Hunting held a significant place in nomadic life, so swiftfooted horses, nimble greyhounds (tazy) and proud golden eagles were highly esteemed. Hunting with a tame golden eagle remains one of the original national traditions, its secrets handed down from generation to generation.
The preparation of birds of prey for the hunt is hard and time consuming work. In late autumn a hunter saddles a horse and sets out in search of a golden eagle. He sets a trap with bait (usually a pigeon) at the bird’s hunting place. Having caught his golden eagle, the hunter begins its domestication and training. For several days the man does not feed the bird and keeps it awake. For all this time the hunter stays around, talking to the bird and playing the dombra so that the golden eagle will become accustomed to him. At first the bird is shy and attacks the man. However, there comes a point at which hunger drives it to take meat from the master’s hands. The hunter shows the golden eagle a fox-skin and then pulls it away with a rope, removing the apparent prey. Finally he rewards the bird with a tasty morsel. Over time the golden eagle gets used to a tomaga (a leather cap closing the bird’s eyes, so that it will give all its attention to hunting).
The hunting season with golden eagles begins when the snow cover sets in. Golden eagles usually prey on foxes and hares, though in olden days they even preyed on saigas and jeirans.
Livestock was the key source of food and the main raw material for manufacturing household goods. The numbers of head depended on periodic alternation of pastures and water sources as they became exhausted. This factor determined the nomadic way of life of tribes in Eurasia. It was under these conditions that the yurt, one of the greatest inventions of civilization, was fi rst built, perfectly suited to the roving life and uniquely decorated.
A well-built yurt is cool in summer and warm in winter. Its assembly and disassembly takes less than an hour. The interior of yurt is traditional. Every nook has a specifi c purpose. There is a separate room for men (on the right), a room for women (on the left), spaces for keeping clothes, mending harnesses and other implements, sleeping rooms, rooms for children and a daughterin-law. A fi replace, with a cauldron (kazan) hanging over it, is located in the middle of the yurt. The seat next to the fi re was considered as the place of honour for respected guests.
A nomad spent a great part of his life in his yurt which was a microcosm of himself. Yurts mirrored the skills and means of their owners. It was a world of ornaments. Besides having a particular functional role, each item was of great cultural and spiritual value. Felt mats (tekemets) were the main embellishment of every yurt. That is why the Kazakhs call the yurt as Kiiz ui (the felt house). The interior was also decorated with felt carpet strips, ribbons, inlays, webbing, embroideries, and wickerwork.
The yurt was the ideal nomadic dwelling due to simplicity of its construction, its ease and speed of assembly, the use of natural materials, and excellent transportability. Yurts can still be seen in the steppes today. They are also used for decoration in restaurants, theatres and other public places. Improvised auls (yurt-camps) are built in the cities during Kazakh national holidays.
Traditional Kazakh national clothing was well fitted for the roving life and changeable weather and protected the wearer from sharp frosts and severe heat, piercing cold winds and burning hot winds. The clothes were durable, comfortable and plain, yet graceful. Garments were classified as men’s, ladies’, children’s, outer- and underwear, seasonal, festive and workaday clothes. In contrast to the modest work wear, festive garments were remarkable for their elegant look, varied styles, rich trimmings and gorgeous decorations. Fine clothes made of velour, velvet, crepe, woollen cloth, sateen, silk and brocade were decorated with beads, gold and silver embroidery, pearls, corals and carnelians, making the steppe-people look even more graceful and attractive.
The garments of girls and young women were decorated with national ornaments. Foreign red fabrics were the most popular because this colour had symbolized life and the sun from olden times. A woman’s dress included the ishkoilek (an undershirt), dambals (trousers), a dress and the beshmet (a sleeveless jacket). Gowns had a wide, straight cut without an emphatic waist-line.
The national men’s costume consisted of the shalbar (suede, cotton or wool trousers), an embroidered shirt and the shekpen (a coat made of homespun wool). The shapan (a long festive gown) is a paragon of needlework, embroidered with large round rosettes symbolizing the Sun as the key ornament.
The takiya or the kepesh (small skull-caps) were an important part of the Kazakh men’s dress. Some researchers suggest that the takiya served as a cap comforter in ancient heroic times. Another item of headwear – the tymak – is indispensable in winter. For this reason, this cap is popular among stock-breeders today.
Kazakh national clothing – military, wedding, festive or working – is a fount of folk arts and crafts. They trace their roots back to remote ages and are connected with nomadic traditions. They also inspire modern fashion designers and suggest new ideas.
In addition to never-ending household chores, Kazakh women were skilled with the needle. They weaved and damasked mats, putting their hearts into the curlicues. Kazakh carpets are striking for their varied techniques, inimitable ornamentation and a magnificent selection of colours: the tekemet made of coloured felt woven into the carpet backing; syrmak trimmed with inlay, appliques or knotwork; tuskiiz (wall carpets) embroidered in gold and silver and decorated with figures; tufted carpets; klem (nap-less woven mats); alasha sewn with ornamental strips, and shim shi (small patterned mats).
The yurt served as the principal dwelling of the Kazakhs for centuries, and making various pieces of its felt coating was a vital necessity. Felting was a prevalent household craft. Felt making is a complex process which requires a degree of experience. It includes several stages, such as wool stocking, spreading on a mat, injection of hot water and firming. The women of the whole aul assisted in making felt for each family.
Men’s traditional arts and crafts included making horse harness, pottery (in settled areas), wood engraving, stone carving and bone carving. Craftsmen often combined carving with colour toning, painting or inlaying with bone and metal. This works was used to decorate furnishings (household items, furniture) and architectural structures.
The Kazakh jeweller’s art developed on the foundations of immemorial traditions forged in the processes of interaction between the nomads and neighbouring nations. Unlike other forms of applied art, jewellery was made professionally. Kazakh jewellers – zergers (zer-zar is translated from Persian as gold) – worked individually, handing their skills down. Zergers produced jewellery, details for costumes, toiletries, cutlery, plates to adorn the timber-frames of yurts, furniture, wooden and leather dishes, music instruments, arms and horse harness.
Hospitality has been a distinctive feature of the Kazakhs at all times. Traditionally, they extend a warm welcome to their guests, give them a place of honour and treat them to the best dishes available in the house. The dastarkhan (repast) begins with tonic milk drinks: kumys, shubat or airan. Then the guest is given some tea with milk or cream, baursaks (fried pellets of dough), raisins, irimshik and kurt (forms of curd). After that come speciality snacks of horse or lamb meat: kazy, shuzhuk, zhal, zhaya, sur-yet, karta, and kabyrga.
The favourite dish of the Kazakhs is Kazakh meat – large slabs of boiled meat. The master of the house carves the meat and serves it round the guests: the shin and hip bones are given to aksakals, the side to his son-in-law or his daughter-in-law, the neck-bone to girls, etc. The most distinguished guest is treated to koi-bas, a mutton head cooked to a specific recipe. The guest shares the head with those present, following an ancient ceremony. The meat is served together with thinly rolled and boiled slices of dough and sorpa, aromatic meat stock. The meal is rounded off by drinking kumys and tea.
Kazakh cookery has always been noted for its original techniques. As a result of the nomads’ lifestyle, the Kazakhs paid great attention to long-term storage of foods. During butchering some meat was corned, dried or smoked for future use. As for dairy foods, the Kazakhs preferred sour-milk products which keep for a long time without spoiling. Plates and dishes were made of ecologically friendly materials: leather, wood and ceramics. Each family also owned a kazan, a cast iron cauldron for cooking.
During a dastarkhan, Kazakhs would also hold conversations and play music. A zhyrau (a narrator of folk tales) and a kyuishi (a musician) were always the centre of attention. Long ago, talented composers, musicians and singers were honoured as highly as eminent governors, outstanding politicians and celebrated commanders in the Great Steppe.
The Kazakhs are noted for their exceptional gift for music. Nearly every family has a member who can sing or play a folk music instrument. Kazakh music instruments have much in common with the instruments of other Eurasian ethnic groups, but at the same time they are unique. Nomads made their instruments of clay, rushes, horn, bone and various kinds of wood. Traditional Kazakh music instruments are the dombra, kobyz, sybyzgi, dauylpaz, kos syrnai, kerney, sherter, zhetygen, asatayak, and konyrau.
The lyrics and music are a mirror of the nomads’ souls. Kazakh music instruments speak with the voice of the steppe. Only a dombra can reproduce the clatter of horses’ hooves. Only a kobyz can cry like a straying colt. Only a saz sarnai can sound like the wind howling among the sand dunes.
